A review of indoor air quality in heritage buildings and confined spaces: Implications for occupational safety and health

Mohamad Romizan Osman; Azman Azid; Mohd Saiful Samsudin; Kamaruzzaman Yunus; Nurul Latiffah  Abd Rani

doi:10.15625/2525-2518/22424

Author affiliations

Authors

Mohamad Romizan Osman \(^1\) School of Aquatic Science and Environment, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Besut Campus, 22200 Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia
\(^2\) Kulliyyah of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, 25300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3040-9030
Azman Azid \(^1\) School of Aquatic Science and Environment, Faculty of Bioresources and Food Industry, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Besut Campus, 22200 Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5015-9712
Mohd Saiful Samsudin \(^3\) Environmental Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Penang, Malaysi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4777-1051
Kamaruzzaman Yunus \(^2\) Kulliyyah of Science, International Islamic University Malaysia, 25300 Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1257-0441
Nurul Latiffah Abd Rani \(^4\) Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.15625/2525-2518/22424

Keywords:

heritage buildings, confined spaces, indoor air quality, heavy metals, particulate matter, microplastics, occupational health

Abstract

The quality of indoor air environments in heritage buildings and confined spaces, such as tunnels, is a critical concern for occupational safety and health (OSH). These environments often contain airborne contaminants, including particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), heavy metals, silica, asbestos, bacteria, fungi, and microplastics, which pose serious health risks to workers and visitors. The deterioration of building materials, inadequate ventilation, and resuspension of settled dust contribute to poor indoor air quality (IAQ), leading to long-term exposure hazards. Heritage buildings, constructed with materials such as lead-based paint, asbestos insulation, and decaying wood, release hazardous particles into the indoor environment over time. Meanwhile, confined spaces like tunnels experience high concentrations of silica dust, toxic gases, and microbial proliferation, exacerbating occupational exposure risks. Recognizing the importance of IAQ to occupational health, regulatory bodies such as DOSH Malaysia have introduced the Industry Code of Practice on Indoor Air Quality (ICOP 2010, revised 2024) to establish workplace IAQ standards. The ICOP 2010 guidelines emphasize the importance of monitoring airborne pollutants, maintaining adequate ventilation, and implementing mitigation measures to minimize health risks indoors and enclosed workspaces (DOSH, 2024). This review analyzes the sources, distribution, and health effects of IAQ degradation in historical and enclosed environments and evaluates existing regulatory frameworks, including ICOP 2010, in addressing these concerns. It compares IAQ standards with regulatory exposure limits set by organizations such as ICOP 2010, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the World Health Organization (WHO). The health effects of prolonged exposure to PM-bound heavy metals, asbestos fibres, and microbial contaminants are discussed, with particular emphasis on respiratory diseases, lung cancer, and neurological impairments. The paper also evaluates IAQ management strategies, including real-time air quality monitoring, ventilation improvements, filtration technologies, and personal protective equipment (PPE). It highlights the effectiveness of mitigation methods in reducing occupational exposure and proposes future research directions to develop sustainable IAQ solutions in heritage conservation and underground infrastructure projects. Aligning IAQ control measures with ICOP 2010 guidelines ensures that workplaces adhere to best practices for safeguarding worker health, preserving historical structures, and maintaining regulatory compliance.

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